Non Commissioned Officers in the Army

With the attack on Pearl Harbour in December 1941, the United States found itself in another major war. Mobilization greatly increased the numbers of Army non-commissioned officers. Ironically, mobilization, combined with other factors, created a staggering growth in the percentage of non-commissioned officers to total forces. The proportion of non-commissioned officers in the Army increased from 20 percent of the enlisted ranks in 1941, to nearly 50 percent in 1945, resulting in reduced prestige for many non-commissioned officer ranks. Coupled with this growth in numbers, the eight-man infantry squad increased to twelve, with the sergeant then staff sergeant, replacing the corporal as its leader. The rank of corporal came to mean very little, even though he was in theory and by tradition a combat leader. Basic training in World War II focused on hands-on experience instead of the classroom. NCOs conducted all training for soldiers. After basic training, a soldier went to his unit where his individual training continued. The major problem was that the rapid expansion of the Army had led to a proportionate decrease in experienced men in the non-commissioned officer ranks. Making this condition worse was the practice of quickly advancing in rank soldiers who showed potential while combat losses reduced the number of experienced NCOs. Fighting in the Pacific and Europe required large numbers of men. Millions of men enlisted and America drafted millions more. Still the Army suffered from manpower shortages. In 1942 the Army formally added women to its ranks. By 1945 over 90,000 women had enlisted in the Army. Women served in administrative, technical, motor vehicle, food, supply, and communications, mechanical and electrical Positions during the war. http://www.armystudyguide.com/content/army_board_study_guide_topics/nco_history/history-of-the-nco-from-f.shtml World war II made more demands on non commissioned officers corp. and had a greater impact upon the NCOs role and status than any previous conflict in American history. By the end of the war, there were 23,328 infantry squads in 288 active infantry regiments. More than seventy separate battalions, including armoured infantry and rangers, raised the total number of such squads to over 25,000, all needing non-commissioned leaders. Drafted, trained, and promoted during the hectic months of 1942 and 1943, these citizen soldiers carried our their duties as non commissioned officers superbly, in countless engagements on every front during WWII, but especially those where small unit leadership was at a premium, such as jungle warfare of new guinea in the pacific and the Hurtgeen forest battle in Europe. There were many Heroes of WWII and you could choose any one of them but here we have the first secret hero America had in World War II. WASHINGTON (Army News Service, March 29, 2005) — Fifty years ago an Army Reserve non-commissioned officer performed an act of heroism that led to him becoming America's first secret hero. Manning a hilltop position near Taejon-ni, Korea, Cpl. Hiroshi Miyamura, formerly of the Enlisted Reserve Corps, was a long way from his home in Gallup, N.M. on the night of April 24, 1951. A major Chinese Communist offensive had been launched against the United Nations line. Miyamura, a machine gun squad leader in Company H, 7th Infantry Regiment, 3rd Division, was 25/5/07 Ordered by his platoon sergeant to take 15 men — machine gunners, riflemen and ammo carriers — to a hill south of the Imjin River and hold the position against the Advancing Chinese Communists as long as possible. He did exactly that throughout the night, Miyamura directed the heavy and light machine guns of his squad as they held off repeated attacks by the Chinese. The combat was savage. Miyamura kept yelling at his gunners to use short bursts. He joined in with automatic fire from his carbine and threw grenades at the enemy, whose attacks were accompanied by bugles, whistles, flares, and supporting mortar bursts. At one critical point, he charged the enemy with his bayoneted carbine and killed ten of them in close-in-combat, breaking up the attack. Finally, it was time for those Americans still alive to fall back. Miyamura slid into the heavy machine gun position and told the unwounded members of the crew and two riflemen to help the injured soldiers away; he would cover them. They moved out and Miyamura was alone, waiting. Then the bugles and whistles sounded again. The Chinese were coming up the hill again. Miyamura fired his machine gun until it ran out of ammunition. He then threw grenades towards the advancing Chinese. With his final grenade, he destroyed the machine gun and took off for a nearby trench, where he literally ran into a Chinese soldier. Despite the surprise encounter, he shot the Chinese and wounded him. The Chinese got off a grenade, which Miyamura kicked away. It exploded, killing its thrower and wounding Miyamura in the leg. As enemy soldiers poured up the hill, Miyamura tried to get away but stumbled into American barbed wire in the dark, causing him further injury. Freeing himself, Miyamura dropped into a hole playing dead while the Chinese swarmed over the area. One Chinese soldier was not fooled and he pointed a pistol at the young corporal, telling him to get up. Four days later, a task force from Chinese around Miyamura's machine gun position. There was no Trace the 3rd Division recaptured the hill. There were more than 50 dead of Miyamura among the dead G.I.s of his section. The man who so fiercely defended that hill joined the Army during World War II and became part of one of the most famous units in American military history, the 442nd Regimental Combat Team. This unit, composed entirely of Americans of Japanese Ancestry, except for some white officers, was — for its size and length of service — the most decorated unit in the Army. Along with the attached 100th Infantry Battalion, its members earned more than 18,000 individual decorations, to include one wartime Medal of Honour, 52 Distinguished Service Crosses, 588 Silver Stars, 5,200 Bronze Stars and more than 9,480 Purple Hearts. We cannot of course forget Ira Hayes the hero, On February 19, 1945, Hayes took part in the landing on Iwo Jima. He then participated in the battle for the island and was among the group of Marines that took Mount Suribachi four days later, on February 23, 1945. The raising of the second American flag on Suribachi by five Marines, Ira Hayes, Rene Gagnon, Harlon Block, Franklin Sousley, and Mike Strank, and a Navy Corpsman, John Bradley, was immortalized by photographer Joe Rosenthal and became an icon of the war. Overnight, Hayes (on the far left of the photograph) became a national hero, along with the two other survivors of the famous photograph, Rene Gagnon and John Bradley. Hayes's story drew particular attention because he was Native American. Hayes was promoted to the rank of corporal before being discharged from the Marine Corps. His decorations and medals include the following: Commendation medal with â€Å"V† combat device, Presidential Unit Citation with one star (for Iwo Jima), American Campaign Medal, Asiatic-Pacific Campaign Medal with four stars (for Vella Lavella, Bougainville, Consolidation of the Northern Solomons, and Iwo Jima) and the World War II Victory Medal This then is the Heroes, now we will have a look at the weapons. The total allied forces in the Second World War were, Tanks 210,950 added to this vast number of fighting machines we had the help of Merchant Shipping, which totalled 44,431,300, and of course the Warships of which there was a grand total of 10,853,200 in the allied forces. Of course you also need to mention the warplanes that numbered 582,500. But the biggest weapon that we used and is still not recognised as such is the terrific amount of manpower that was needed, 109,705,100 men fought in the war and they above the weapons need to be mentioned, yes the weapons helped but it is the sheer blood and guts of the men and women that fought so bravely that got us all through. http://www.historylearningsite.co.uk/weapons_and_manpower.htm Part of the creed of NCOs is as follows and tells us what his duties are. Competence is my watchword; my two basic responsibilities will always be uppermost in my mind. Accomplishment of my mission, and the welfare of my soldiers. I will strive to remain tactically and technically proficient, all soldiers are entitled to outstanding leadership and I will provide that leadership, I know my soldiers and I will always place their needs above my own. I will communicate consistently with my soldiers and never leave them uninformed. I will be fair and impartial when recommending both reward and punishment. Officers of my unit will have ample time to fulfil their duties. They will not have to accomplish mine. I will earn their respect and confidence as well as that of my soldiers. I will be loyal to those I serve, seniors, peers, and subordinates alike. I will exercise initiative, by taking appropriate action in the absence of orders. I will not compromise my integrity. Nor my moral courage, I will not forget nor will I allow my comrades to forget that we are professionals. Non-commissioned officers, and leaders. http://ncohistory.com/files/Origins.pdf Throughout history, training noncommissioned officers of the United States Army had been accomplished using on-the-job training (OJT) in the unit, and many believed that is where it should stay. Training noncommissioned officers was conducted by officers in the regiment and was the commanding officer’s responsibility. It was accepted that unit training was the best means of developing noncommissioned officers and potential noncommissioned officers. In most early writings the NCO was regarded with the Enlisted man and as such received little interest. They should teach the soldiers of their squad how to dress with a soldier like air, how to clean their arms, accoutrements, etc and how to mount and dismount their Firelocks. {Instructions for the Sergeant and corporal Von Steubens 1779 Blue Book} Citation Page http://ncohistory.com/files/Origins.pdf http://www.historylearningsite.co.uk/weapons_and_manpower.htm http://www.armystudyguide.com/content/army_board_study_guide_topics/nco_history/history-of-the-nco-from-f.shtml   ;

Comparative Study of Common Vegetable Starches Essay

ABSTRACT The purpose of this experiment is to be able to help the society with its environmental issues by creating biodegradable plastic out of common vegetable starches. Here, the The procedures that the researcher use in this investigatory project were all experimental and were based on Scientific Method. The researcher used environment-friendly materials which can be made into biodegradable plastics that will not harm the environment and will not add to pollution problems. Among th The result was found that the product exhibited the desirable properties of a biodegradable plastic thus the product is completely biodegradable at disposal. The researcher conclude that among the different vegetable starches, _____________ starch is the most effective raw material for the development of biodegradable plastics due to its availability in large quantity, its relatively low cost and its biodegradability. INTRODUCTION A. Background of the Study The ever unending problem of waste disposal specifically the non-biodegradable one had contributed to the alarming worldwide problem of global warming. As an example, the experience storm surge of the island of Leyte due to increase of sea level, increase of water level among streets during heavy rain due to clogged drains, canals and sewerage. Using vegetable starches in developing biodegradable plastic is one big step to lessen, if not total eliminate, our global concerns. Generally, this study is conducted to replace the conventional non-biodegradable plastics to a more friendly biodegradable plastics using different vegetable starches. The cassava root is long and tapered, with a firm, homogeneous flesh encased in a detachable rind, about 1mm thick, rough and brown on the outside. Commercial varieties can be 5 to 10 cm in diameter at the top, and around 15 cm to 30 cm long. A woody cordon runs along the root’s axis. The flesh can be chalk-white or yellowish. Cassava roots are very rich in starch, and contain significant amounts of calcium (50 mg/100g), phosphorus (40 mg/100g) and vitamin C (25 mg/100g). However, they are poor in protein and other nutrients. In contrast, cassava leaves are a good source of protein, and are rich in the amino acid lysine, though deficient in methionine and possibly tryptophan. These components are components of biodegradable plastic. The squash The sweet potato B. Significance of the Study Once one of these vegetable starches known, this study will be very essential in the production of biodegradable plastics, which can lessen the tremendous piled up non-biodegradable garbages made by plastics thereby reducing harm  to our environment. C. Statement of the Problem The problem is to compare which among the different vegetables; squash, sweet potato and cassava, which are rich in starch will be an effective component for biodegradable plastic. D. Hypothesis Cassava starch is the most effective component for biodegradable plastic. E. Scope and limitations This study will be focused on the comparison of the three common vegetables, namely, the squash, principal variable of this project is the cassava starch. The locale of this project is it could help save the environment and reduce use of plastic that takes a lot of years to degrade. REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE The word plastic came from the Greek word plastikos, meaning capable of being molded. Plastics can be as hard as metal or as soft as silk. They can take any shape in almost any form due to the versatility of the carbon, the most common backbone of polymer chains. Plastics can be conveniently divided into two categories: semi-synthetic, in which the basic chain structure is derived from a natural product, such as cellulose; and synthetic, which is built up chemically from small units or monomers. Despite the various applications of plastics, drawbacks have been encountered in three major points. Firstly, there are certain chemicals used in the manufacture of .plastics that may cause allergic reactions. Three is a need man from these threat. Secondly, since cellulose films are biodegradable; they are readily attacked by bacteria. Films and packaging materials from synthetic polymers are normally attacked at a very low rate. New polymers such is nylon, polyvinyl chloride and Polystyrene have replaced cellulose, the pioneer plastic material. As a result, these plastic materials have become permanent wastes. There ‘are various methods in making biodegradable plastics. The simplest is the production of plastic from the extraction of casein from milk. Casein is obtained in two ways by souring, with the use of lactic acid, arid by boiling together with an additive, such as acetic acid. Starch is a natural organic polymer manufactured by green plants through photosynthesis s to serve as metabolic reserve It occurs in the form of grains in many ‘parts of the plant, principally in embryonic tissues such as seeds, fruits, roots and tubers. Polyvinyl alcohol is a colorless, odorless, tasteless, thermoplastic synthetic resin. It is usually used for grease-proofing paper, in adhesives, in gas- and oil-impervious films and Coatings. This substance, although soluble in water, is insoluble in Common organic solvents. Glycerol is the simplest trihydric alcohol. In commercial form, it is called glycerin. It is a colorless odorless and viscous liquid with a sweet taste. It is completely soluble in water and alcohol but is only slightly soluble in many common solvents, such as ether, ethyl acetate and dioxane. It is widely used in coatings and paints, pharmaceuticals and cosmetics. Plastic production is relatively new technology. Experiments are being conducted to relieve the negative effects ‘of overproducing plastics. By changing its raw materials and additives, commercial plastic may be improved so that it will become degradable while retaining its good quality. Cassava (Manihot esculenta), also called manioc, tapioca or yuca, is one of the most important food crops in the humid tropics, being particularly suited to conditions of low nutrient availability and able to survive drought (Burrell, 2003). The plant grows to a height of 1 to 3 m and several roots may be found on each plant. Although cassava leaves are sometimes consumed, the major harvested organ is the tuber, which is actually a swollen root. The plant is propagated mostly from stem cuttings. A major limitation of cassava production is the rapid post-harvest deterioration of its roots which usually prevents their storage in the fresh state for more than a few days (Okezie and Kosikowski, 1982). Cassava ranks very high among crops that convert the greatest amount of solar energy into soluble carbohydrates per unit of area. Among the starchy staples, cassava gives a carbohydrate production which is about 40% higher than rice and 25% more than maize, with the result that cassava is the cheapest source of calories for both human nutrition and animal feeding. A typical composition of the cassava root is  moisture (70%), starch (24%), fiber (2%), protein (1%) and other substances including minerals (3%) Compared to other crops, cassava excels under suboptimal conditions, offering the possibility of using marginal land to increase total agricultural production (Cock, 1982). METHODOLOGY Cassava Tubers were ground and squeezed to extract its starch. Starch obtained was weighed and divided into three equal parts; 50 grams in trial 1, trial 2 and trial 3. T1, T2 and T3 also consisted of 50 ml Polyester resin and increasing variations of Polymer MEKP Hardener; 50 grams for T1, 100 grams for T2 and 150 grams in T3. The components in every treatment or trial were mixed, stirred and then poured in 3 different shirts with Petroleum Jelly and then sun-dried. Afterwards, different methods were used to test the effectivity of the plastic. T1, T2 and T3 were sun-dried but they did not look like a plastic at all. The researchers observed the product while waiting for it to dry but there were no signs of turning into a plastic. The Cassava starch was too thick and the researchers realized that it would not turn into a plastic because of its heavy weight and it would take more time before it would dry because of its thickness. After letting T1, T2 and T3 dry under the sun, it became hard. Although the researchers had unexpected results and the Cassava starch did not turn into plastic, studies have already proven that Cassava starch could be used for making various types of packaging products. Cassava is a promising raw material for the development of biodegradable plastics.

A Study of the Association between Frederick Douglass and Abraham Lincoln

A Study of the Association between Frederick Douglass and Abraham Lincoln Fredrick Douglass and Abraham Lincoln shared an unusual friendship based on the hardships Fredrick had in life and the influence Abraham had on the country and slavery as a whole. Both Douglass and Lincoln wanted to slavery to end. Both had strong influences and ties to slavery. Fredrick Douglass had a very hard life growing up as a slave. Witnessed beating of other slaves but was never beating as a child. As a child he realized that they was no getting out of the situation he was end. He had a lot of time to himself which made him a witness to a lot of things like deaths of fellow adult slaves. â€Å"To be accused was to be convicted and to be convicted was to be punished.† (Douglass 18) Mr. Gore (one of Col Lloyd’s overseer) used to beat slaves no matter how guilty or innocent they were. Mr. â€Å"Gore was a grave man, and, though a young man, he never told jokes, said no funny words, seldom smiled.† (Douglass 19) This made Douglass understand that people were really cruel and had no care for anybody that was a slave. After leaving Col Lloyds plantation Fredrick Douglass was sent to live with Master Hugh’s family. â€Å"Mistress, in teaching me the alphabet, had given me the inch, and no precaution could prevent me from taking the ell.† (Douglass 33) While living on the plantation Hugh’s wife taught Douglass his A B Cs. As soon as Master Hugh’s found out what his wife was doing he and forbid her from teaching him anything else. From then on he slowly start teaching himself to read. It got so bad every time the Hugh’s family felt like the Douglass was alone they felt like he was away trying to learn. Growing up around a lot of white friends made him kind of jealous and mad that he had to be a slave for the rest of his life. â€Å"You will be free as soon as you are twenty-one, but I am a slave for life† (Douglass 34) He also used a lot of his white friends as teachers where he learned more and more. â€Å"I often found myself regretting my own existence, a nd wishing myself dead; and but for the hope of being free, I have no doubt but that I should have killed myself, or done something for which I should have been killed.† (Douglass 36) The thought of being a slave forever was killing him he was very depressed. â€Å"Frederick Douglass never lost faith in the possibility of humankind’s improvement. He confronted, he argued, he pleaded, he bluffed, he threatened and conned — using whatever tactics might work in a particular situation. No aspect of human oppression escaped his concern or compassion.†(Abraham Lincoln and Frederick) Through it all Douglass stood strong and fought for his freedom. He eventually got free and wrote many different writing about his times as a slave that influenced a lot of white and blacks to realize how evil slavery really was. Abraham Lincoln was very influential to the end of slavery. â€Å"As a young man, Abraham Lincoln had witnessed the slave system when he twice traveled down the Mississippi River on a raft to New Orleans.† (Abraham Lincoln and slavery) Lincoln always hated the injustice of slavery ever since he was a child. As a young man he had a lot of African American friends even his barber was African American. Lincoln knew how involuntary servitude felt. It just was unfair for someone to work for someone and it was wrong to not give someone there fair earnings. Especially when you’re gaining from their hard work and labor. In his Alton debate with Senator Stephen A. Douglass in 1858, Mr. Lincoln said: â€Å"That is the real issue. That is the issue that will continue in this country when these poor tongues of Judge Douglass and myself shall be silent. It is the eternal struggle between these two principles – right and wrong –throughout the world. They are the two principles that have stood face to face from the beginning of time; and will ever continue to struggle. The one is the common right of humanity and the other the divine right of kings. It is the same principle in whatever shape it develops itself. It is the same spirit that says, ‘You work and toil and earn bread, and I’ll eat it.’ [Loud applause.] No matter in what shape it comes, whether from the mouth of a king who seeks to bestride the people of his own nation and live by the fruit of their labor, or from one race of men as an apology for enslaving another race, it is the same tyrannical principle.† (Abraham Lincolns Values) He knew how it felt to have to work in the field in a lesser way. While he was young he worked at a farm for his father. In the 1830 Lincoln was a young and poor lawyer but he, alongside with Lyman Trumbull and Gustave Koerner, together destroyed the legal basis of the Negro indenture system which amounted to de facto slavery in Illinois. (Burlingame) He worked hard to help against slavery even as a poor lawyer. He felt very strongly about slavery and worked on many cases including Cromwell vs Baily a case where he won a case for an African American slave girl named Nancy. It was a decision made by the Illinois Supreme Court which was a very historic decision and the first of its kind. (Abraham Lincoln and slavery) The decision was that an African American was free and not for sale. It took a lot of morals and strength for a young lawyer to fight for slave freedom. Lincoln served a single term in Congress. During that term he voted for the Wilmot Proviso multiple times. (Abraham Lincoln and slavery) Wilmot Proviso was law that would prohibit slavery in new U.S. Territory. During The Civil War the main point of war Abraham stuck with was to preserve the Union. . Throughout the whole 1862 he offered many southern states a Compensated emancipation to make things easier for the south which would slowly transition the slave states to Free states. â€Å"President Lincoln took a measured approach to emancipation and set a period of 100 days until he would issue the final Emancipation Proclamation – giving the South a grace period until January 1, 1863 in which to return to the Union.† (Abraham Lincoln and slavery) Lincolns plan during the war was to fight mainly to preserve the Union but to slowly push the publics influence on abolishment. Lincoln said it himself â€Å"When I issued that proclamation, I was in great doubt about it myself. I did not think that the people had been quite educated up to it, and I feared its effects upon Border States.†(Burlingame) The south never took advantage of their grace period and a lot of people thoug ht that Lincoln wouldn’t even issue you the final emancipation. Many slaves never knew they were free until years later after the war was over. Both Fredrick Douglass and Abraham Lincoln were very crucial people in ending slavery. They both influenced many people to fight. Fredrick Douglass writing was very intense and it made people really understand the hardships of the life he lived as a slave. By the end of the war in over 617,000 Americans died by the time the Confederate army surrendered. The landscape was destroyed.

Oral Herpes Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Oral Herpes - Essay Example Bridges and Shuman noted that these viruses show up anywhere in the body and can spread even if these sores are not visible. Other conditions, such as general illness, fatigue, physical or emotional stress, immunosuppression, trauma or menstruation bring about the outbreak of HSV-1. Â   Signs and Symptoms of the Disease Herpes simplex virus symptoms appear typically as single or multiple blisters that break and leave tender sores around the mouth or affected area (Bridges). The incubation period for the herpes simplex virus 1 averages from 2 to 12 days and its signs and symptoms lasts from two to three weeks with the following manifestations of fever, tiredness, muscle pain and irritability. At the site of infection, pain, burning, tingling and itching appears prior to the emergence and eruption of sores, bumps or blisters (Bridges). According to Davis, the sequence of eruption of clusters of blisters occurs and eventually breaks down rapidly. These blisters appear as tiny, shallow and gray ulcers on top of a red base; they are crusted or scabbed, dry and yellowish. Davis added that at the onset of appearance of the oral sores at the lips, gums, throat, front of the tongue, inside the cheek and roof of the mouth an intense pain is felt that makes eating and drinking difficult for the patient. In som e cases these sores extend down to the chin and neck area or are swollen mildly and may sometimes bleed in the gums. On the other hand, they are also felt as swollen and painful lymph nodes of the neck. Painful throat with

Main Character Analysis - The Yellow Wallpaper Essay

Main Character Analysis - The Yellow Wallpaper - Essay Example THE CENTRAL CHARACTER OF THE STORY REPRESENTS AN ‘OUTSIDER’ WHO DOES NOT WANT TO CONFORM TO THE TRADITIONAL NORMS AND HENCE FREES HER SOUL FROM THE PRETENSE OF THE CONVENTIONAL WIFE WHO ABIDES BY HER HUSBAND’S DECISIONS WITHOUT INDIVIDUAL JUDGMENT. Women have attempted to get rid of the conventional definitions of their roles and the ideology forced upon them, thus seeking for a redefinition of Womanhood. Charlotte Perkins Gilman illustrated the struggle of the female character of the story to overcome the patriarchal constraints in order to be able to cultivate her writing talents. Here she talks about the dominating care of her husband as she says, â€Å"He is very careful and loving, and hardly lets me stir without special direction†¦ There comes John, and I must put this away, --he hates to have me write a word. We have been here two weeks, and I haven't felt like writing before, since that first day. I am sitting by the window now, up in this atrocious nursery, and there is nothing to hinder my writing as much as I please, save lack of strength† (Gilman, 1891, 2) Gilman also points out the lack of cooperation from the female counterparts which have helped the male reinforce their dominance. She has mentioned the case of the sister of the woman’s husband in this regard. ... From the fact that John would not encourage her writing let alone appreciate them, she gradually suffered from low-self esteem. The following lines express her feelings, â€Å"But these nervous troubles are dreadfully depressing. John does not know how much I really suffer. He knows there is no REASON to suffer, and that satisfies him.† (Gilman, 1891, 3) The work represents the Cult of Womanhood, which ties up the women folk to the ambience of the home and family. Here the woman has been confined to the defined parameters that have been set by men. Constant domination negatively affects her creativity, as she has to put in the extra effort in order to overcome the mental set back and arouse the self-encouragement within her. The character Gilman creates in her story is an inspiration to all the women who have confined themselves within the shackles of dominance. She depicts the challenges thrown towards patriarchal ideologies and how women could move beyond the conventional ba rrier of ideology imposed upon them. She cites a reflection of this situation as she describes the changes in the wallpaper, saying, â€Å"There are things in that paper that nobody knows but me, or ever will. Behind that outside pattern the dim shapes get clearer every day. It is always the same shape, only very numerous.† (Gilman, 1891, 6) she wonders whether all women would be able to walk out of these artificial misleading designs created deftly by men – â€Å"I wonder if they all come out of that wall-paper as I did?† (Gilman, 1891, 12) The central character of the story ‘The Yellow Wallpaper’ therefore represents the ‘outsider’ to the set norms of the society

Microeconomics Principles Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Microeconomics Principles - Essay Example Moreover, this paper will present real events in order to present the ideas in a way that is easy to understand. Gains from trade In a decision to get a haircut, Gains from trade can be understood through determination of the decision made by a consumer depending on the other services available. Therefore, a decision to have a haircut can result to consumers having their lives than they would if there was no trade. In this case, there is need to explore the simple example concerning a situation involving two service that are traded (Broadstock, 3). For instance, considering a situation where there are two service providers such as a barber and a tailor that are located in different location. Gain from trade can be effectively illustrated in a situation when each service provider can only offer one service only. In this case, the barber can only offer haircutting services, while the tailor can only offer dressmaking services. The gains from trade occur in a situation where the barber realizes that he or she needs some clothes and that would call for services from the tailor (Eicher, Mutti and Turnovsky, 1). On the other hand, the tailor can realize he needs a haircut and this would call for services from a barber. In fact, this is in a situation where the barber and tailor are able to gain from trading with each other (Broadstock, 4). On the other hand, there are situation where each of these service providers can offer both services; in this case, the tailor and barber have the skills to of hair cutting and dressmaking. Approaching this matter with another perspective, these service providers can collaborate and work together, thereby consuming similar amount of services without occurrence of trade. Opportunity cost This can be discussed in reflecting on same example used in the previous discussion. In this case, the barber and tailor had absolute advantage in the process of offering haircutting and dressmaking services to customers. However, the absolute advan tage forms a basis of understanding the opportunity cost, whereby this can assist in determining occurrence of the trade. Therefore, opportunity cost is regarded as the cost of forgoing a particular service or good in order to obtain something else (Broadstock, 6). For instance, the when a barber has the ability to offer dressmaking services, he can decide to forgo this making his own dress at a lower opportunity cost he can decide to seek services from a tailor. In fact, the concept of opportunity cost is significant in determination of the amount of benefits derived from trade existing between two service providers. In this case, this is an indication that situation where two service providers are facing similar opportunity cost, there are increased chances of gains from trade occurring. Opportunity costs increases in situations where the services or goods involved increases in terms of production (Merrewijk, 30). This is presented through a PPF (production possibility frontier), where an increase in the opportunity cost leads to bowing out of the PPF, thereby forming a circle shape. In situation where the opportunity cost are constant despite the services or goods produced, the PPF remains constant, thereby taking a straight line that is triangular. Decreasing opportunity cost is presented in a PPF by a subsequent decrease in the production of goods or services; in fact, this is depicted as PPF takes a bowed shape that resembles a crescent moon (Merrewijk, 30). Price elasticity of demand Understanding of price elasticity of demand can assist in evaluating the responsiveness of demand in terms of changes in prices for a given commodity, however, it is indispensable to recognize that in situation where

Middle Eastern Studies Journal Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Middle Eastern Studies Journal - Essay Example This basic enumeration of the conflicts within the region betrays the inherent causes and motives by speaking only of the volume and frequency, and the extent of both human and financial resources (mis)directed towards the defense and invasions within the Middle East as compared to other regions of the world. These connect between wars and the military has been the largest barrier to adoption of more â€Å"liberal political practices† that are favored by Western states such as the United States and Britain. Therefore, what are the geneses of such conflicts? What roles do the military serve herein? In Western Europe, the perceived desires to create powerful military forces pushed central authorities to tighten their grip on societies and acquire resources through the imposition of taxes which was used to pay military effort. Consequently, strong centralized states emerged around militaries; the inherent nature of war therein led to protonationalism. Middle East societies have l argely been under military rule since they gained independence; whether directly or indirectly, the power wielders have uncharacteristically been military officers (Richards and Waterbury 345). ... A fundamental aspect of Middle East’s military-industrial complex is the tendency to become powerful economic enclaves unaccountable to either auditors or national assemblies (Richards and Waterbury 345). The Israeli, Turkish and Saudi-Arabia form 60% of all military expenditure in the region. Is there military weight to the GDP of the region? Certainly! 1. Military-industrial sector heavily relies on advanced technology 2. Research into the direct use and manufacture advances telecommunication, telemetry and remote sensing technology 3. Growth in the triad sectors (military, industry and research and development) is a key source of foreign exchange 4. The military-industrial sector competes against other private sectors for human and financial resources thereby increasing the aggregate efficiency of the economy People within the region seem to welcome the disproportionate public investment into defense either due to national pride or perhaps in cognizance of the inherent need to survive in an increasingly complex global geo-political atmosphere. Real expansion in defense came shortly after 1975 with Saudi-Arabia and several other Gulf members resolving to finance the Arab Military Industrialization Organization (AMIO) in producing advanced weapons for Arab states (Richards and Waterbury 345). Soon after, Iraq invaded Kuwait in 1990. This prompted a UN force led by the United States under the now famous operation â€Å"desert storm† to successfully come to the aid of Kuwait. The unmistakable presence of the United States in the Arabian affairs would once again be witnessed in 2003 when the combined force of US and Britain invaded Iraq overthrowing the Ba’athist regime under Sadam Hussein. They additionally

Wausau Paper Comapny Research Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Wausau Comapny - Research Paper Example Further, the company managed to grow and expand throughout America making it even more determined to meet customer needs and environmental protection and sustainable production requirements. Termed as the leading paper industry in the U.S., Wausau Paper Industry was founded in the year 1899 as among the first paper industry to be on the Wisconsin River. The individuals who played a part in laying its foundation included personnel such as the brothers E.A and W.L. Edmonds and Norman H. Brokaw under the name Wausau Paper Mills. It has grown substantially from the first mill to the current ten production plants. It was among the first industries to be in North America (WausauPaper, 2015). Later in the year after 1910 it was renamed Mosinee Paper Mills after the establishment of the first integrated mill in the region. This followed the construction of the Wausau Sulphate Fibre Company in Mosinee, Wisconsin. In the year 1928, the firm bought another company, Bay West. Bay West had been in the production of paper napkins among other products such as paper towels and creped papers. The above was made in its efforts to expand its production and the market as well (WausauPaper, 2015). More capital was pumped in during the years 1958 and 1961. As a result of the money, the industry was expanded making the company produce more of its products. The expansion process did not stop there as in the year 1966 there was the purchase of another company, the Nekoosa Edwards Special Products Business. Consequently, its name was changed to Mosinee Paper Corporation four years later (Content, 2013). The company continued to grow further introducing more products to its line. As time went by, there was more market for the products leading to the acquisition of more plants in the Northeast to meet the demand for its products. In the year 1997 there

Diversity, legal rights of students Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words - 1

Diversity, legal rights of students - Essay Example Each IEP should be designed for one student and should be an absolutely individualized document. The IEP channels the delivery of special education services and supports for the student with a disability (La Venture, 2003). 3) Evaluations for special education. It should involve more than a single process, be nondiscriminatory, be done in a child’s primary language, arranged by qualified multidisciplinary team, and tailored to gauge particular areas of need (La Venture, 2003). 4) Federal financial assistance. It will be given to local and state governments that provide full educational opportunities to students with disabilities. Since federal law regulates the rights of education for students with special needs, and due to the additional costs associated with educating these students, federal money is made available to schools based upon the number of students in the special education program. Every student, regardless of cost or disability, should be given by public school districts the right to an education within their schools (La Venture, 2003). 5) Due process procedures. Occasionally school districts and parents argue on how a child with disabilities must be educated. When this occurs, there are measures in place to deal with these conflicts. Parent involvement consists of a) the right to receive notice, b) equal partnership in the decision-making process, c) the right to give approval for particular activities such as changes in placement, assessments, and release of information to others, d) and the right to join in all meetings regarding their child’s special education (La Venture, 2003). 6) Least Restrictive Environment (LRE) in which to learn. This concept reveals the act’s solid inclination for educating students with disabilities in general education classes with the access to general education curriculum. Education in the general education classroom is the first placement

Professional Sports in American History Movie Review

Professional Sports in American History - Movie Review Example As a result, neither the book nor the movie contain what is traditionally considered to be a protagonist, the type of character that someone gets emotionally involved with and roots for. In part, this is due to complexity of the characters who are not presented in simple black and white terms as stock heroes or villains. Because an author just by virtue of his medium has more time to evoke resonance and nuance than a fillmaker, Eliott Asinof succeeds in portraying the scandal with more complexity than John Sayles can in his film. The true story behind what really happened in any actual event is always dependent upon a variety of elements. Since no one involved at any level in this drama can possibly come out looking anything better than unscrupulous or gullible, it should not be at all surprising that any of them might have been unwilling to be completely honest. The statements given by the players to the Grand Jury raised more than questions than answers, and the true story of the gamblers who set the whole thing in motion will forever remain steeped in the mysterious code of omerta that makes most underworld dealings an account of rumors at best. That atmosphere of ambiguity and uncertainty is felt throughout the book and, indeed, lends it a sense of greatness. The reader can never be completely c ertain just how deeply involved in the scandal were such players Buck Weaver and Shoeless Joe Jackson. Since movies are made for the satisfaction of a mass audience that has less patience with unanswered questions, John Sayles was forced to be less indefinite. The film provides a starker contrast between those players who are committed to the act of athletic sabotage and those who are assumed to be mere pawns in a much more dangerous game. The difference is not necessarily artistic, but economic. The wider the intentended audience for a work art, the less likely one is to see nuance and subtlety. As an example, compare an independent film about a low-budget independent film about a parent/child relationship with any top rated sitcom. One central similarity between the book and the movie is the decision to make pitcher Eddie Cicotte the emotional center. Cicotte, despite being one of those players for which there is little doubt he was a willful participant, nevertheless seems to hav e the best reason of all to do what he did. The book and movie both present Cicotte as the primary recipient of White Sox owner Charlie Comiskey's sensational greed, but while also falling short of turning him into a hero; he was a great pitcher who was denied a bonus for winning thirty games in a season only because he, allegedly, Comiskey ordered him to be benched so he wouldn't have the chance. While both book and movie strive to make Eddie Cicotte at least sympathetic if not actualy laudable, he is used to different ideological aims in the two media. For Asinoff, Cicotte's position is exploited primarily as a figure who is opposition to Charlie Comiskey. In the book, Eddie Cicotte comes across as older and a bit more fragile, an aging pitcher whose arm was the feeling the effects of the thousands of balls he'd pitched over the year. Despite the fact that his contributions and loyalty were expressed in a 29-7 record, however, his bank account did not reflect his part in providing owner Comiskey with a team

After the Revolutionary War Essay Example for Free

After the Revolutionary War Essay After the Revolutionary War, many Americans realized that the government established by the Articles of Confederation was not working. America needed a new form of government. It had to be strong enough to maintain national unity over a large geographic area, but not so strong as to become a tyranny. Unable to find an exact model in history to fit Americas unique situation, delegates met at Philadelphia in 1787 to create their own solution to the problem. Their creation was the United States Constitution. Before the Constitution could become the supreme law of the land, it had to be ratified or approved by at least nine of the thirteen states. When the delegates to the Philadelphia Convention signed the Constitution on September 17, 1787, they knew ratification would not be easy. Many people were bitterly opposed to the proposed new system of government. A public debate soon erupted in each of the states over whether the new Constitution should be accepted. More important, it was a crucial debate on the future of the United States. The Federalist Papers Nowhere was the furor over the proposed Constitution more intense than in New York. Within days after it was signed, the Constitution became the subject of widespread criticism in the New York newspapers. Many commentators charged that the Constitution diminished the rights Americans had won in the Revolution. Fearful that the cause for the Constitution might be lost in his home state, Alexander Hamilton devised a plan to write a series of letters or essays rebutting the critics. It is not surprising that Hamilton, a brilliant lawyer, came forward at this moment to defend the new Constitution. At Philadelphia, he was the only New Yorker to have signed the Constitution. The other New York delegates had angrily left the Convention convinced that the rights of the people were being abandoned. Hamilton himself was very much in favor of strengthening the central government. Hamilton’s Constitution would have called for a president elected for life with the power to appoint state governors. Hamilton soon backed away from these ideas, and decided that the Constitution, as written, was the best one possible. Hamilton published his first essay in the New York Independent Journal on October 27, 1787. He signed the articles with the Roman name Publius. (The use of pseudonyms by writers on public affairs was a common practice.) Hamilton soon recruited two others, James Madison and John Jay, to contribute essays to the series. They also used the pseudonym Publius. James Madison, sometimes called the Father of the Constitution, had played a major role during the Philadelphia Convention. As a delegate from Virginia, he participated actively in the debates. He also kept detailed notes of the proceedings and drafted much of the Constitution. Unlike Hamilton and Madison, John Jay of New York had not been a delegate to the Constitutional Convention. A judge and diplomat, he was serving as secretary of foreign affairs in the national government. Between October 1787 and August 1788, Publius wrote 85 essays in several New York newspapers. Hamilton wrote over 60 percent of these essays and helped with the writing of others. Madison probably wrote about a third of them with Jay composing the rest. The essays had an immediate impact on the ratification debate in New York and in the other states. The demand for reprints was so great that one New York newspaper publisher printed the essays together in two volumes entitled The Federalist, A Collection of Essays, written in favor of the New Constitution, By a Citizen of New York. By this time the identity of Publius, never a well-kept secret, was pretty well known. The Federalist, also called The Federalist Papers, has served two very different purposes in American history. The 85 essays succeeded by helping to persuade doubtful New Yorkers to ratify the Constitution. Today, The Federalist Papers helps us to more clearly understand what the writers of the Constitution had in mind when they drafted that amazing document 200 years ago.

Constitution in USA Essay Example for Free

Constitution in USA Essay A constitution is either a written (codified) or unwritten (uncodified) body of fundamental principles or established precedents according to which a state is acknowledged to be governed. Generally, a constitution is only written after a major event. In the case of America their constitution was written in 1787, after the American Revolutionary War came to a close. There are a number of issues with America’s constitution which make it, arguably, unfit for the 21st century. The most apparent issue with the constitution is the overall ambiguity that it’s based upon. Take for example the eighth amendment which forbids the federal government from imposing cruel or unusual punishments on American citizens. However, what’s classed as a cruel or unusual punishment? Many have argued that capital punishment can be seen as a cruel punishment, which has led to some states, such as Illinois, abolishing the death penalty altogether. Though, despite eighteen states abolishing the death penalty so far, there has been no move to amend the constitution to include the death penalty as an example of ‘cruel punishment’. Another example of an ambiguous amendment is the first amendment which protects the right to free speech as well as freedom of religion. However, how far this amendment applies has been questioned on numerous occasions. For example, Texas passed a law which prevented flag desecration (burning of the American flag), however the Supreme Court overturned the Texas law due to it violating citizen’s first amendment right as flag desecration is seen as an expression of belief, which the first amendment protects. This has led to numerous calls for flag desecration being outlawed via a constitutional amendment, however just like the eight amendment this would be incredibly hard to achieve. This is purely due to how difficult it is to amend the American constitution. The American constitution’s amendment process is long and difficult, which is mainly due to it requiring a supermajority. A supermajority is where 2/3rds of both houses of Congress have to agree to the amendment put forward. Even if either house falls short by one vote, the amendment is dropped. This process was made to be hard intentionally by the Founding Fathers. This was  because they believed that the constitution shouldn’t be constantly changing, and so they created the need for a supermajority to stop the federal government from making rash, in the moment, decisions which they could grow to regret later on. However, it is this founding belief that has made the constitution, arguably, untenable for the 21st century, which can be contributed to Congress’ explosive growth over the last 200 years. For example, in 1789 there were only 65 Representatives in the House of Representatives, which grew to 435 by 1963 and plateaued due to the House of Representative s being capped in 1911. This is an increase of 370 over a period of 174 years (meaning that there were two new Representatives every year). This continually increased the amount of people who had to work in unison to pass constitutional amendments, and as evidenced by the 1911 Act which capped the size of the House of Representatives, America grew far more than the Founding Fathers had originally intended. The constitution can also be seen as unfit for the 21st century due to an ever increasing political pace, as well as rapidly changing circumstances which have led to very different outcomes when compared to the British political system. This can mainly be seen with gun control which is protected in America by the second amendment (â€Å"Right to bear arms†) despite the amount of shootings which have occurred in recent times. An example of this would be the Sandy Hook shooting, which occurred on December 14th 2012 at an elementary school in Connecticut. This caused nationwide outrage which in turn caused support for disarmament groups to increase. However, after several months the support fell away and no constitutional amendments were put through, despite pledges and campaigns from Barrack Obama and Joe Biden. Now, when compared to England, there was a shooting spree in a Dunblane Primary School in 1996. Following national outrage, much alike that caused by Sandy Hook, guns were criminalised by an Act of Parliament, which was significantly easier to do as the UK does not have a written constitution, rather an unwritten one which is drawn from several sources. However, despite the faults with the American constitution, it must be fit for purpose if it still exists. This is because if it wasn’t fit for  purpose, and didn’t work at all, it would have been scraped by one of the American administrations after its conception. This is mainly aided by the argument that the constitution’s ambiguity is what allows it to adapt to changing circumstances as well as its ability to change without formal review. What is meant by this is the fact that the Supreme Court can uphold or repeal earlier decisions made in relation to the constitution, meaning that if the correct decisions were repealed the constitution could be drastically changed.

Teachers Perceptions of Instructional Supervision

Teachers Perceptions of Instructional Supervision CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION This chapter gives a preamble to the whole study. It deals with the problem and the way it is approached. It encloses a brief formulation of background of the study, objective of the study, delimitation and limitation of the study. It also introduces definition of some key terms and the overall organization of the study. 1.1 Background of the Study Teacher education play an important role in promoting the learning and professional growth of teachers. Supervision is one of the functions of education that offers opportunities for schools to be effective and for increasing the professional development of teachers as a means of effectively managing the teaching-learning process (Kutsyuruba, 2003; Arong Ogbadu, 2010). Supervision has existed in all countries for many decades and occupies a pivotal position in the management of education, which can be understood as an expert technical service most importantly concerned with scientific study and improvement of the conditions that surrounds learning and pupil growth (Alemayehu, 2008). According to Vashist (2004), supervision is leadership and development of leadership within groups, which cooperatively assess educational product in light of accepted educational objectives, studying the teaching-learning situation to determine the antecedents of satisfactory and unsatisfactory pupil gr owth and achievement, and improving the teaching learning process. The concept of instructional supervision differs from school inspection in the sense that the former focuses on guidance, support, and continuous assessment provided to teachers for their professional development and improvement in the teaching-learning process, whereas the latter gives emphasis on controlling and evaluating the improvement of schools based on stated standards set by external agents outside the school system (Wilcox Gray, 1996; Tyagi, 2010; Arong Ogbadu, 2010). Instructional supervision is mainly concerned with improving schools by helping teachers to reflect their practices, to learn more about what they do and why, and to develop professionally (Sergiovanni Starratt, 2007). Various authors stated that instructional supervision has clear connection with professional development (Sergiovanni Starratt, 2007; Zepeda, 2007). Kutsyuruba (2003) defined professional development as follows: A major component of ongoing teacher education concerned with improving teachers instructional methods, their ability to adapt instruction to meet students needs, and their classroom management skills; and with establishing a professional culture that relies on shared beliefs about the importance of teaching and learning and that emphasizes teacher collegiality. (p. 11) In Ethiopia, the supervisory services began to be carried out since 1941, with constant shift of its names Inspection and Supervision. Currently, supervision is widely practiced in all schools at all levels (Haileselassie, 1997). In the case of Addis Ababa, Addis Ababa City Administration Education Bureau (AACAEB) has restructured its sub city level supervisory positions from general supervisory approach to subject-area instructional supervisory approach, since the beginning of 2004 (Alemayehu, 2008). 1.2 Problem Statement A research conducted by Alemayehu (2008) in secondary schools of Addis Ababa shows that the subject-area instructional supervision practiced in Addis Ababa City Administration (AACA) has exposed to multiple problems such as, lack of adequate support to newly deployed ( beginner) teachers, less amount of classroom visits and peer coaching by instructional supervisors, focus of supervisors on administrative matters than on academic issues (supporting and helping teachers), and less mutual professional trust between supervisors and teachers. All these and other problems can enable teachers to have a negative perception towards instructional supervision. According to Oliva (1976), the way teachers perceive supervision in schools and classrooms is an important factor that determines the outcomes of supervision process. In addition, previous research and publications revealed that because of its evaluative approaches; less experienced teachers have more negative perceptions on the practice of supervision than more experienced teachers. They consider supervisors as fault finders; they fear that supervisors will report their weaknesses to the school administrator, and consider supervision as nothing value to offer to them (Blumberg, 1980; Olive, 1976; Zepeda Ponticell, 1998). However, literature on perception of teachers toward supervisory practices is very limited in Africa in general and in Ethiopia in particular. Therefore, this study was designed to examine beginning teachers perceptions of the real and ideal supervisory practices and their perceptions on its relationship with professional development in private and government secondary schools of Addis Ababa. This study addressed the following basic research questions: What are the perceptions and preferences of government and private beginning secondary school teachers regarding the actual and ideal supervisory practices? Is there any difference in perception between beginner and experienced secondary school teachers regarding the actual and ideal supervisory practices? What is the perceived relationship between the supervisory practices and teachers professional development? 1.3 Objective of the Study The overall objective of this study was to examine the existing perception of beginning teachers toward instructional supervision and its perceived relationship to professional development in government and private secondary schools of Addis Ababa. Specifically, the study seeks to explore beginning teachers perception of what the ideal supervision should be and how it has been actually implemented in the schools, and their perceived connection to professional development. In addition, it was aimed to explore what differences existed in the perception of instructional supervision between private and government school teachers and between experienced and less experienced (beginner) teachers. 1.4 Significance of the Study Teachers perception of instructional supervision can positively or negatively affect the quality of education. Teachers differ in their preferences and choices of supervisory approaches (Beach Reinhartz, 2000). Though there are some teachers who would like to work alone without additional support, there are other teachers who would appreciate comments about their teaching from their colleagues, supervisors, or school administrators (Augustyn, 2001). In this study, an overview of the theoretical frameworks of supervisory approaches (ideal interpretation) and their practical applications (actual interpretation) were presented. The researcher has a belief that identifying the prevailing perceptions of teachers by undertaking this survey and coming up with sound recommendations can have its own role to play in improving the practical supervisory processes and quality of education at large. To this end, this study will bring about the following benefits: The research findings provided an insight into teachers perception of supervisory practices and thus determined whether teachers were satisfied with such practices and their influence on professional development. The study will enable those involved in supervisory practices to identify the underlying negative perceptions of instructional supervision and seek for application of appropriate supervisory approaches based on teachers preferences and choices. Since the characteristic of education is its dynamism and capacity to respond to changing needs and challenges, the researcher feels that the study will contribute an additional source of information in evaluating the achievement gained as a result of practicing instructional supervision. Finally, the researcher also believes that the study will initiate other researchers to undertake detailed research on the effectiveness of instructional supervision at regional and national levels. In addition, the results of this study may be used to add to the international practices of instructional supervision. 1.5 Delimitation of the study Since Addis Ababa City Administration (AACA) is wide having a total of 112 government and private secondary schools, it will be unrealistic and impractical to attempt to study teachers perception of instructional supervision within a given time limit. Therefore, the study is delimited to 20 private and government secondary schools (10 from each) and 200 teachers (100 beginning and 100 experienced). In addition, public secondary schools in Addis Ababa are not included in this study due to the fact that the government has enacted a law to be included under government control and administration. However, by this movement the schools are not totally shifted to government control. They are partially funded by government and partially by the public, but their name and administration are not yet clear. 1.6 Limitation of the Study The study had limitations in that it includes only government and private secondary schools in Addis Ababa. Primary schools are not included in this study due to time and budget constraints. On the other hand, generalizability of this study was limited by the fact that the research was conducted in secondary schools in one city of Ethiopia. In addition, the study had limitations of all survey type research such as clarity of wording and respondent understanding of some terminologies. Problem of getting recently published books was equally challenging. Therefore, because of these limitations, the study by no means claims to be conclusive. It would rather serve as a spring to study teachers perceptions in a more detailed and comprehensive way. 1.7 Definition of Key Terms For the purpose of this study, the following terms were defined: Instructional supervision: is a process aimed at providing guidance, support, and continuous assessment to teachers for their professional development and improvement in the teaching-learning process, which relay on the system that is built on trust and collegial culture (Beach Reinhartz, 2000). Beginning teacher: refers to a teacher currently in the first or second year of teaching. Experienced teacher: refers to a teacher who has three or more years of teaching experience. Secondary school: is a school usually includes grades 9 through 12. Government secondary school: is a school established and administered by government of Ethiopia. Private secondary school: is a school established and administered by private foreign or local owners. Ideal supervisory approaches: are supervisory approaches stated in various literatures which should be implemented in schools. Real supervisory activities: are those supervisory approaches stated in various literatures which are actually implemented in schools. Professional development: is a major component of ongoing teacher education concerned with improving teachers instructional methods, their ability to adapt instruction to meet students needs, and their classroom management skills, leading to the professional growth of the teacher (Wanzare Da Costa, 2000). Sub-city: in Ethiopian case, it refers to the government administrative hierarchy next to city administration. It is locally called Kifle Ketema. 1.8 Organization of the Study This study comprises five chapters. The first chapter deals with the problem and the way it is approached. It encloses a brief formulation of background of the study, objective of the study, delimitation and limitation of the study, and definition of some key terms. The second chapter reviews some of the current literature pertaining to the area of instructional supervision, different approaches to supervisory process, and their connection with professional development. The third chapter details the research methodology, description of the study area, data sources, samples and sampling techniques, data gathering instruments, validity and reliability of instruments, procedure of data collection, and analysis of the data. Analysis and interpretation of the research findings are presented in the fourth chapter. Lastly, a summary of the study, conclusions, and recommendations are presented in chapter five. CHAPTER TWO THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK AND LITERATURE REVIEW OF INSTRUCTIONAL SUPERVISION AND PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT In this chapter a review of related literature on instructional supervision and its relationship with professional development is provided. The chapter is divided in to four parts as to enable the reader to follow a logical sequence that includes: history of school supervision, overview of supervision approaches, teachers perception of supervisory processes, and the relationship between supervision and professional development. 2.1 History of School Supervision In many developed countries, such as United Kingdom (UK) and United States, much more attention has been given to inspection than school supervision (Lee, Dig Song, 2008). The Inspectorate of Education had originated from France under Napoleons Regime at the end of the 18th century, and other European counties followed the idea in the 19th century (Grauwe, 2007). For example, in UK, the first two inspectors of schools were appointed in 1883 (Shaw, Newton, Aitkin Darnell, 2003) and in the Netherlands it was started in 1801 (Dutch Education Inspectorate, 2008). The terms inspector and inspection are still being used in various developed and developing countries , including United Kingdom (UK), United States, European countries and some African countries such as Lesotho, Senegal, Tanzania and Nigeria (Grauwe, 2007). Traditionally, inspection and supervision were used as important tools to ensure efficiency and accountability in the education system. Later adherents of the terminologies of inspection and supervision are used by different countries in different ways. As outlined by Tyagi (2010), inspection is a top-down approach focused on the assessment and evaluation of school improvement based in stated standards, where as supervision focus on providing guidance, support and continuous assessment to teachers for their professional development and improvement in their teaching- learning process. Nevertheless, since the demand of teachers for guidance and support rendered from supervisors has increased from time to time, some countries changed the terminology and preferring the term supervisor over that of inspector. According to Grawue (2007), some countries have recently developed more specific terminologies: Malawi, uses education methods advisor, and Uganda teacher development advisor. The concepts of supervision and inspection have been changed frequently in Ethiopian education system and the reason was not clearly pedagogical (Haileselassie, 2001). In 19 42, educational inspection was practiced for the first time, then it was changed to supervision in the late 1960s , again to inspection in mid 1970s and for the fourth time it shifted to supervision in 1994 (Haileselassie,2001). Haileselassie stated that: Apart from perhaps political decisions, one could not come up with any sound educational and pedagogical rationale to justify the continuous shift made in the name. With the name changes made we do not notice any significant changes in either the content or purpose and functions. (Haileselassie, 2001, p. 11-12) From 1994 onwards, supervision has been practiced in Ethiopia decentralized educational management. According to the Education and Training Policy (1994), educational supervision is recognized at the center (Ministry of Education), Regional, Zonal, District (Woreda) and School levels. Instructional supervision at school level is practiced by principals, deputy principals, department head, and senior teachers. According to Haileselassie (1997), the functional and true sense of educational supervision depends on the supervisory operation made at the grassroots level, i.e. School level. In this regard, subject-area instructional supervision has practiced in all schools of Addis Ababa since the beginning of 2004. The major responsibilities of subject-area instructional supervisors in Addis Ababa include: (1) examining and reporting the programs, organization and management of the teaching-learning activities; (2) developing and presenting alternative methods used to improve instructional programs; (3) guiding and monitoring schools and teachers; (4) preparing and organizing professional trainings, workshops, seminars, etc.; (5) monitoring and supporting the mentoring (induction) programs for beginner teachers; and (6) providing direct assistance and perform instructional and managerial activities in schools with teachers and principals by organizing and implementing clinical, collegial, peer coaching and cognitive coaching techniques of instructional supervision, etc (Alemayehu, 2008). 2.2 Overview of Supervisory Approaches According to Blasà © and Blasà © (1998), although many supervisory approaches are collaborative in nature, for long time, supervisory of instruction has been viewed exclusively as an inspection issue. Sergiovanni (1992) described supervision as a ritual they [supervisors and teachers] participate according to well established scripts without much consequence (p. 203). This author continued that today, supervision as inspection can be regarded as an artifact of the past, a function that is no longer tenable or prevalent in contemporary education (p. 204). He explained that though functioned for a considerable span of time, this type of supervision caused negative stereotypes among teachers, where they viewed as subordinates whose professional performance was controlled. Supporting this idea, Anderson and Snyder (1993) stated, because of this, teachers are unaccustomed to the sort of mutual dialogue for which terms like mentoring, peer coaching collegial assistance are coming in to u se (p.1). It should be clear, however, that traditional supervisory approaches should not be removed completely because supervisory authority and control are essential for professional development. Mitchell and Sackney (2000) explained this as much of past practice is educationally sound and should not be discarded (p. 37). Having said this, it is important to differentiate instructional supervision from evaluation. Authors described the former as a formative approach and the later as a summative approach (Poole, 1994; Zepeda, 2007). Poole (1994) stated that instructional supervision is a formative process that emphasizes collegial examination of teaching and learning (p. 305). In this regard, participants in the supervision process plan and implement a range of professional growth opportunities designed to meet teachers professional growth and educational goals and objectives at different levels. Teacher evaluation, on the other hand, is a summative process that focus on assessing the compete nce of teachers, which involves a formal, written appraisal or judgment of an individuals professional competence at specific time (Poole, 1994, p. 305). The supervisory (formative) and evaluative (summative) processes should go hand in hand (Sergiovanni Starratt, 2007). While supervision is essential for teachers professional growth, evaluation is essential to determine this growth and teacher effectiveness (Kutsyuruba, 2003; Wareing, 1990). The widely used approaches to evaluation are administrative monitoring, report writing, checklists, and self-assessment. On the other hand, approaches to supervision are categorized as clinical supervision, peer coaching, cognitive coaching, mentoring, self-reflection, professional growth plans, and portfolios (Alfonso Firth, 1990; Clarke, 1995; Poole, 1994; Reninan, 2002; Sergiovanni Starratt, 2007; Zepeda, 2007). Implementing different supervisory approaches is essential not only to give choices to teachers; it is also important to provide choices to the administrators and schools (Kutsyuruba, 2003). Each component of supervisory approaches are discussed as follows. Clinical Supervision According to Sergiovanni and Starratt (2007), clinical supervision is a face- to- face contract with teachers with the intent of improving instruction and increasing professional growth (p. 23). It is a sequential, cyclic and systematic supervisory process which involves face-to-face interaction between teachers and supervisors designed to improve the teachers classroom instructions (Kutsyuruba, 2003). The purpose of clinical supervision according to Snow-Gerono (2008) is to provide support to teachers (to assist) and gradually to increase teachers abilities to be self-supervising (p. 1511). Clinical supervision is a specific cycle or pattern of working with teachers (Sergiovanni Starratt, 1993, p. 222). It is a partnership in inquiry where by the person assuming the role of supervisor functions more as an individual with experience and insight than as an expert who determines what is right and wrong (Harris, 1985). Goldhammer, Anderson and Karjewski (1980) described the structure o f clinical supervision that includes pre-observation conference, class room observation, analysis and strategy, supervision conference, and post-conference analysis. Clinical supervision is officially applicable with: inexperienced beginning teachers, teachers are experiencing difficulties, and experienced teachers who are in need of improving their instructional performance. Sergiovanni and Starratt (2007) stated that clinical supervision is typically formative than summative in its evaluative approach in order to enable beginning teaches collaborate to research their practices and improve their teaching and learning (p. 233). As a result of this, the writers further described that the focus of clinical supervision is not on quality control, rather on the professional improvement of the teacher that guarantees quality of teaching and students performance (Sergiovanni Starratt, 2007). Collaborative Supervision Collaboration and collegially are very important in todays modern schools. According to Burke and Fessler (1983), teachers are the central focuses of collaborative approach to supervision. Collaborative approaches to supervision are mainly designed to help beginning teachers and those who are new to a school or teaching environment with the appropriate support from more experienced colleagues. Thus, these colleagues have an ethical and professional responsibility of providing the required type of support upon request (Kutsyuruba, 2003). In this regard, a teacher who needs collegial and collaborative support should realize that needs do not exist for professional growth, that feedback from colleagues and other sources should be solicited in order to move toward improvement (Burke Fessler, 1983, p.109). The major components of collaborative approaches to supervision which are especially needed for beginner or novice teachers are: peer coaching, cognitive coaching and mentoring (Shower s Joyce, 1996; Sergiovanni Starratt, 2007; Sullivan Glanz, 2003; Kutsyuruba, 2003). Peer coaching Peer coaching, according to Sullivan and Glanz (2000), is defined as teachers helping teachers reflect on and improve teaching practice and/or implement particular teaching skills needed to implement knowledge gained through faculty or curriculum development (p. 215). The term coaching is introduced to characterize practice and feedback following staff development sessions. According to Singhal (1996), supervision is more effective if the supervisor follows the team approach. This would mean that the supervisor should have a clear interaction with teachers and group of teachers, provide an open, but supportive atmosphere for efficient communication, and involve them in decision making. The goal of coaching as described by Sergiovanni and Starratt (2007), is to develop communities within which teachers collaborate to honor a very simple value- when we learn together, we learn more, and when we learn more, we will more effectively serve our students (p. 251). Thus, peer coaching provid es possible opportunities to beginner teachers to refine teaching skills through collaborative relationships, participatory decision making, and immediate feedback (Bowman McCormick, 2000; Sullivan Glanz, 2000). In this regard, research findings showed that beginning teachers rated experienced teachers who coached than as highly competent and the process itself as very necessary (Kutsyuruba, 2003). Cognitive coaching According to Costa and Garmston (1994), cognitive coaching refers to a nonjudgmental process built around a planning conference, observation, and a reflecting conference (p. 2). Cognitive coaching differs from peer coaching in that peer coaching focuses on innovations in curriculum and instructions, where as cognitive coaching is aimed at improving existing practices (Showers Joyce, 1996). As Beach and Reinhartz (2000) described, cognitive coaching pairs teacher with teacher, teacher with supervisor, or supervisor with supervisor, however, when two educators are in similar roles or positions, the process is referred as peer supervision. The writers further identified three components of cognitive coaching: planning, lesson observation, and reflection. Costa and Garmston (1994) described three basic purposes of cognitive coaching, namely: (1) developing and maintaining trusting relationship; (2) fostering growth toward both autonomous and independent behavior; and (3) promoting learning. In a cognitive coaching process, teachers learn each other, built mutual trust, and encouraged to reach at a higher level of autonomy- the ability to self-monitor, self-evaluate, and self-analyze (Garmston, Linder Whitaker, 1993). Mentoring Mentoring as defined by Sullivan and Glanz (2000) is a process that facilitates instructional improvement wherein an experienced educator agrees to provide assistance, support, and recommendations to another staff member (p. 213). Mentoring is a form of collaborative (peer) supervision focused on helping new teachers or beginning teachers successfully learn their roles, establish their self images as teachers figure out the school and its culture, and understand how teaching unfolds in real class rooms (Sergiovanni Starratt, 2007). Sullivan and Glanz (2000) stated the works of mentors as: The mentor can work with a novice or less experienced teacher collaboratively, nonjudgmentally studying and deliberating on ways instruction in the class room may be improved, or the mentor can share expertise in a specific area with other educators. Mentors are not judges or critics, but facilitators of instructional improvement. All interactions and recommendations between the mentor and staff members are confidential. (p. 213) Research projects and publications revealed that mentoring has clear connections with supervision and professional development which serve to augment the succession planning and professional development of teachers (Reiman Thies-Sprinthall, 1998).In addition, Sergiovanni and Starratt (2007) described that the emphasis of mentoring on helping new or beginner teachers is typically useful for mentors as well. By helping a colleague (beginner teacher), mentors able to see their problems more clearly and learn ways to overcome them. As a result, mentoring is the kind of relationship in which learning benefits everyone involved. Self-Reflection As the context of education is ever changing, teachers should have a professional and ethical responsibility to reflect on what is happening in response to changing circumstances. Thus, they can participate in collective reflection practices such as peer coaching, cognitive coaching, or mentoring, as well as self-assessment reflective practices (Kutsyuruba, 2003). According to Glatthorn (1990), self- directed development is a process by which a teacher systematically plans for his or her own professional growth in teaching. Glatthorn further described that self-directed approaches are mostly ideal for teachers who prefer to work alone or who, because of scheduling or other difficulties, are unable to work cooperatively with other teachers. Sergiovanni and Starratt (2007) considered this option to be efficient in use of time, less costly, and less demanding in its reliance on others. Thus, the writers indicated that in self-directed supervision teachers work alone by assuming responsi bility for their own professional development (p. 276). Furthermore, Glatthorn (1990) suggested that self-development is an option provided for teachers that enable them to set their own professional growth goals, find the resources needed to achieve those goals, and undertake the steps needed to accomplish those outcomes (p. 200). In addition, this approach is particularly suited to competent and experienced teachers who are able to manage their time well (Sergiovanni Starratt, 2007). Portfolios As teachers want to be actively participated in their own development and supervision, they need to take ownership of the evaluation process (Kutsyuruba, 2003). The best way for teachers to actively involve in such practices is the teaching portfolio (Painter, 2001). A teaching portfolio is defined as a process of supervision with teacher compiled collection of artifacts, reproductions, testimonials, and student work that represents the teachers professional growth and abilities (Riggs Sandlin, 2000). A portfolio, according to Zepeda (2007), is an individualized, ongoing record of growth that provides the opportunity for teachers to collect artifacts over an extended period of time (p. 85). Similarly, Sergiovanni and Starratt (2007) stated that the intent of portfolio development is to establish a file or collection of artifacts, records, photo essays, cassettes, and other materials designed to represent some aspect of the class room program and teaching activities. As Sullivan and Glanz (2000) stated portfolio documents not only innovative and effective practices of teachers, but also it is a central road for teachers professional growth through self-reflection, analysis, and sharing with colleagues through discussion and writing (p. 215). The writers further described that portfolio can be used to support and enrich mentoring and coaching relationships. Professional Growth Plans Professional growth plans are defined as individual goal-setting activities, long term projects teachers develop and carry out relating to the teaching (Brandt, 1996, p. 31). This means that teachers reflect on their instructional and professional goals by setting intended outcomes and plans for achieving these goals. In professional growth plans as part of instructional supervisory approach, teachers select the skills they wish to improve, place their plan in writing including the source of knowledge, the type of workshop to be attended, the books and articles to read, and practice activities to be set. In this regard, Fenwick (2001) stated that professional growth plans could produce transformative effects in teaching practice, greater staff collaboration, decreased teacher anxiety, and increased focus and commitment to learning (p. 422). Summative Evaluation There is a clear link among instructional supervision, professional development and teacher evaluation (Zepeda, 2007). Teacher evaluation involves two distinct components: formative evaluation and summative evaluation (Sergiovanni Starratt, 2007). The writers differentiated formative teacher evaluation as an approach intended to increase the effectiveness of ongoing educational programs and teachers professi

Scopes Monkey Trial :: essays research papers

I think the Scopes trial brought together a great cast of characters: three-time presidential candidate William Jennings Bryan; America's best defense attorney, Clarence Darrow: and its most popular journalist, H. L. Mencken. It was a trial about ideas, a contest between traditionalism, the faith of our fathers, and modernism, the idea that we test faith with our intellect. And it had what the New York Times called the most memorable event in Anglo-Saxon court history: Darrow's calling of William Jennings Bryan, the prosecutor, to the stand and examining him on his interpretation of the Bible. Seventy-five years later, this trial has stood the test of time. Clarence Darrow was a nearly-70 year old attorney who was largely regarded as America's most eloquent defense attorney. He had the ability to transform almost any courtroom trial into a much larger context, and raised large social and political issues that captured the public imagination. He also had a very good sense of humor, which sometimes got him into trouble, as in the Scopes case, when complaining to the judge after his request to introduce scientific expert testimony had been rejected said, "Why is it that all of our requests are rejected?" The judge answered, "I hope you do not mean to reflect upon the Court?" Darrow replied, "Well, Your Honor has the right to hope." H. L. Mencken was the reporter who played a large role in the trial, and is well-known as one of America's most colorful, acerbic, and in his own way, prejudiced reporters, but his colorful reporting added greatly to our understanding of the trial. William Jennings Bryan was a three-time failed presidential candidate who, in the years preceding the Scopes trial, had transformed himself into a sort of fundamentalist pope. He campaigned against evolution, at one time offering to pay $100 to anyone who personally could prove that he descended from a monkey. If the trial were held today, the law would be held unconstitutional as a violation of the U.S. Constitution's establishment clause in the First Amendment. The trial would thus have been decided on the motion to quash the indictment, and there would have been no witnesses and none of the entertainment that we got in 1925. Scopes' Place in Culture The Scopes trial came at a crossroads in history - as people were choosing to cling to the past or jump into the future.

Balance Of Power :: essays research papers

The Balance of Power Throughout the semester, a theme that has guided our thoughts has been the idea that the self is the capacity to have capacities. Through what we have read, written about, and discussed, we have been trying to come up with our own answers to the questions about the self; what a capacity is, how we find them, which ones are essential to human flourishing, what we do with them once they are found? Yet all of these questions lead us to answer that final and defining question of "what is the 'truth'?" A capacity is a capability or a realized power in a person. Some of the authors that we read throughout the semester believed that these capacities must be implanted into us, and then nurtured and trained. C.S. Lewis says that, "The task of the modern educator is not to cut down jungles, but to irrigate deserts."(1-p.27) However, in this statement he contradicts his own belief. In order for irrigation to work and make things grow, there must be something there beneath the surface to begin with. This is exactly my belief. I agree with Lewis that our capacities must be trained and educated, but those that are essential to human flourishing are inside our hearts waiting to be uncovered. But how then, do we go about uncovering these capacities? The answer is so simple, and yet far to complex to completely explain in one paper. It takes thought. In fact, thought is the best example of a capacity. No one can teach thought. It is an innate quality of all human beings. However, thought is not complete in its original state. We must train and educate our ability to think. We can train it to be analytical, critical, evidential, logical, careful, clear, subjective, objective, etc. The list could go on and on. We can 'irrigate' it and watch it grow. But that is assuming that it is there in the first place. Kierkegaard was on the right track to uncovering what is inside of us. He believed that it would take subjective thought about ourselves, not being detached from our feelings, but letting our emotions be our guide to what we truly believe. However, subjective thinking alone cannot decipher what capacities are essential to our lives. It gives us a place to start from with what really matters to us in our hearts, but it is clouded by our biases and prejudgements.

Chisholm Trail :: essays research papers

Chisholm Trail When the railroads moved west to the Great Plains, the "Cattle Boom" began. Southern Texas became a major ranching area with the raising of longhorn cattle from Mexico. Cattle was branded by the rawhides who guarded them on horseback on the ranges. Before the Civil War, small herds of Texas cattle were driven by the cowboys to New Orleans, some as far west as California, and some to the north over the Shawnee Trail. This trail passed through Dallas and near the Indian Territory, ending in Sedalia, Missouri. In 1866, the Shawnee Trail presented some major problems for the cattle drivers Farmers along the route did not like their fields being trampled. They also objected to the spread of tick fever. Longhorns carried the ticks but were immune to the fever. A few farmers were so angry, they armed themselves with shotguns to convince the cattle ranchers to find another trail north. There was a large increase icattle by the end of the Civil War. Over 1,000,000 cattle roamed the open range. At this time, people in the north had money to buy beef and cattle which was in great demand. A cow that cost 4 to5 dollars a head in Texas was going for 40 to 50 dollars a head in the east. Ranchers hired cowboys for the cattle drives north, realizing the great opportunity for a large profit if they could reach the railroads in Abilene, Kansas. Joseph McCoy, a stock dealer from Springfield, Illinois, decided a new trail was necessary west of the farms. In 1867, he chose a route that would reach Abilene and the railroads with the least amount of problems. This route was to become well-known as the Chisholm Trail. Jesse Chisholm was a half-breed, a Scotch Cherokee Indian trader, who in 1866 drove a wagon through the Indian territory, known now as Oklahoma, to the Wichita, Kansas, where he had a trading post. Cattlemen use the same trail in the years to come, following Chisholm's wagon ruts to Abilene, Kansas, and the railroads. The trail began below San Antonio, Texas, and stretched north for about 1,000 miles. The main course then passed through Austin, Fort Worth, The Indian Territory, and Wichita to Abilene. Side trails fed into the Chisholm Trail. The cattle fed on grass along the trail. Cattlemen moved about 1,500,000 cattle over the trail during a three year span. The biggest year was in 1871, when 5,000 cowboys drove over 700,000 head of cattle along the trail from Texas to Abilene. The Chisholm Trail was the most popular route because of the good terrain.

Applications of Biometrics in Cloud Security

CHAPTER ONE 1. 1 INTRODUCTION The success of modern day technologies highly depends on its effectiveness of the world’s norms, its ease of use by end users and most importantly its degree of information security and control. Cloud computing is a style of computing in which dynamically scalable and often virtualized resources are provided as a service over the Internet. Users need not have knowledge of, expertise in, or control over the technology infrastructure ‘in the cloud’ that supports them [15, 16].Authentication, thus, becomes pretty important for cloud security. Biometric is the most secure and convenient authentication tool. It cannot be borrowed, stolen, or forgotten and forging one is practically impossible. The term comes from the Greek words bios (life) and metrikos (measure). To make a personal recognition, biometrics relies on who you are or what you do—as opposed to what you know. OBJECTIVES 1 To know and understand the meaning of biometric, its uses, the characteristics and also its advantages and challenges. To know and understand the full meaning of cloud computing its type and its service providers 3 To explain the about cloud security and its shortfalls 4 To know how biometric technology can be applied to enhance security in cloud computing CHAPTER TWO 2. 0 BIOMETRICS The word â€Å"biometrics† comes from the Greek language and is derived from the words bio (life) and metric (to measure). Biometrics (or biometric authentication) refers to the identification of humans by their characteristics or traits.Computer science, biometrics to be specific, is used as a form of identification [1]. Biometrics is automated methods of recognizing a person based on a physiological or behavioural characteristic [2]. Biometrics offers new perspectives in high-security applications while supporting natural, user-friendly and fast authentication. Biometric technology uses these characteristics to identify individuals automatica lly1. Ideally the characteristic should be universally present, unique to the individual, stable over time and easily measurable [5]. 2. Biometric systems A biometric system provides an automated method of recognizing an individual based on the individual's biometric. A biometric is a measurement of a biological characteristic such as fingerprint, iris pattern, retina image, face or hand geometry; or a behavioural characteristic such as voice, gait or signature. Behavioural biometrics are related to the behaviour of a Person, including but not limited to: typing rhythm, gait, and voice. Some researchers have coined the term behaviourmetrics to describe the behaviour class of biometrics [1].A biometric system is essentially a pattern-recognition system that recognizes a person based on a feature vector derived from a specific physiological or behavioural characteristic that the person possesses [3]. Biometric systems can be used in two different modes. Identity verification occurs wh en the user claims to be already enrolled in the system (presents an ID card or login name); in this case the biometric data obtained from the user is compared to the user’s data already stored in the database Identification (also called search) occurs when the identity of the user is a priori unknown.In this case the user’s biometric data is matched against all the records in the database as the user can be anywhere in the database or he/she actually does not have to be there at all [4]. The combination of biometric data systems and biometrics recognition/ identification technologies creates the biometric security systems. 2. 2 Biometric Authentication Authentication on the other hand, is a process where a known person's live biometric is compared to a stored template of that person.For example, an individual’s identity is revealed to the biometric system upon entering a PIN (Personal Identification Number). To authenticate that this is the person associated wi th this PIN, a live biometric is presented by the individual and compared to the template and a match is determined. This is known as a ‘one to one’ search. It is more accurate than the ‘one to many’ application and is the predominant biometric process in place today and the more privacy friendly of the two systems.This answers the question – Are you who you say you are? Two general uses of biometrics are identification and verification which both require the existence of reference data that the person’s measured traits will be compared with reference templates or raw data. During these processes, a biometric data sample is compared against the respective biometric data of every person enrolled in the database or against a single reference template of a particular enrolled individual in order to confirm the identity of that person respectively.When a biometric system correctly identifies a person, then the result of the identification process is a true positive, whereas if the system correctly rejects a person as not matching the respective enrolled template, the result is a true negative. Similarly, when the system incorrectly identifies or rejects a person then we speak about a false positive or a false negative. Fig 2. 1 Components of a Biometric Authentication System[31] 2. 3 BIOMETRIC SECURITY SYSTEM The biometric security system is a lock and capture mechanism to control access to specific data.In order to access the biometric security system, an individual will need to provide their unique characteristics or traits which will be matched to a database in the system. If there is a match, the locking system will provide access to the data for the user. The locking and capturing system will activate and record information of users who accessed the data. The relationship between the biometric and biometric security system is also known as the lock and key system. The biometrics security system is the lock and biometric s is the key to open that lock [11]. 2. 4 CRITERIA FOR BIOMETRIC SYSTEM[12]There are seven basic criteria for biometric security system: [12] * Uniqueness: uniqueness is considered as the priority one requirement for biometric data. It will indicate how differently and uniquely the biometric system will be able to recognize each user among groups of users . For instance, the DNA of each person is unique and it is impossible to replicate. * Universality: Universality is a criterion for the biometric security that indicates requirements for unique characteristics of each person in the world, which cannot be replicated. For example, retinal and iris are characteristics will satisfy this requirement. Permanence: permanence parameter is required for every single characteristic or trait which is recorded in the database of the system and needs to be constant for a certain period of time period. This parameter will mostly be affected by the age of the user * Collectability: The collectabil ity parameter requires the collection of each characteristic and trait by the system in order to verify their identification * Performance: performance outlines how well the security system works. The accuracy and robustness are main factors for the biometric security system.These factors will decide the performance of the biometric security system * Acceptability: The acceptability parameter will choose fields in which biometric technologies are acceptable. * Circumvention: circumvention will decide how easily each characteristic and trait provided by the user can lead to failure during the verification process. DNA is believed to be the most difficult characteristic leading to the failure of the verification process [13]. Figure 2. 2 Basic Criteria for Biometrics Security System [26] 2. 5 TYPES OF BIOMETRIC systems Two classes of biometric methods are: 1) Physical Biometrics:Physiological biometrics is based on measurements and data derived from direct measurement of a part of the human body. * Fingerprint: Fingerprint recognition is one of the best known and most widely used Biometric technologies. Fingerprint recognition technology extracts features from impressions made by the distinct ridges on the fingertips. * Iris-scan: Iris recognition technology is based on the distinctly coloured ring surrounding the pupil of the eye. Iris recognition systems use a small, high-quality camera to capture a black and white, high-resolution image of the iris. Retina-scan: Retina recognition technology captures and analyses the patterns of blood vessels on the thin nerve on the back of the eyeball that processes light entering through the pupil. * Hand geometry: Hand geometry technology takes 96 measurements of the hand, including the width, height, and length of the fingers; distances between joints; and shape of the knuckles. * Facial recognition : Facial recognition technology identifies people by analysing features of the face not easily altered—the upper out lines of the eye sockets, the areas around the cheekbones, and the sides of the mouth..Facial recognition can be used in both verification and identification systems. 2) Behavioural characteristics are based on an action taken by a person. Behavioural biometrics, in turn, are based on measurements and data derived from an action, and indirectly measure characteristics of the human body * Voice recognition: Voice authentication is unique and non-intrusive method and also the hardware requirements required for this type of authentication are cheap and are available readily. Microphones can be used for this purpose.However the back ground noise must be controlled, high storage is required for this kind of authentication. This type of authentication can also be extraneously influenced by once sore throat and cold. [7] * Keystroke-scan: Keystroke dynamics is a biometric based on the assumption that different people type in uniquely characteristic manners. Observation of telegraph operato rs in the 19th century revealed personally distinctive patterns when keying messages over telegraph lines, and telegraph operators could recognize each other based on only their keying dynamics [22].Keystroke dynamics is known with a few different names: keyboard dynamics, keystroke analysis, typing biometrics and typing rhythms [22]. Currently users begin information to computer systems via physical keyboards or keyboards on touch screens. The main advantage of using keystroke dynamics is that it can be used without any additional hardware. Thus it is inexpensive. The user acceptance of a keystroke dynamics biometric system is very high, since it is not intrusive and users do not necessarily even notice that such a system is used [22, 27]. Signature Recognition: Signature recognition authenticates identity by measuring handwritten signatures. The signature is treated as a series of movements that contain unique biometric data, such as personal rhythm, acceleration, and pressure flo w. In a signature recognition system, a person signs his or her name on a digitized graphics tablet or personal digital assistant. The technology can also track each person’s natural signature fluctuations over time. The signature dynamics information is encrypted and compressed into a template.One of the defining characteristics of a behavioural biometric is the incorporation of time as a metric – the measured behaviour has a beginning, middle and end [6]. A number of biometric methods have been introduced over the years, but few have gained wide acceptance. 2. 6 PERFORMANCE OF BIOMETRICS SYSTEMS The following are used as performance metrics for biometric systems [8]. * False Accept Rate FAR and False Reject Rate FRR: The FAR gives a measure of the probability that an individual will be ‘falsely accepted’ by the system (i. . that the system accepts someone who is not enrolled on the system, or makes an incorrect identification). The FRR indicates how like ly it is that a legitimate user will be rejected. The balance between the FAR and the FRR greatly influences both the security and usability of the system. The False Rejection Rate (FRR) is usually caused by lighting, climate conditions, low quality equipment or inexperience. The False Acceptance Rate (FAR) is caused by the security standard being too low [9]. False Match Rate FMR and False NonMatch Rate FNMR: A false match occurs when a system incorrectly matches an identity, In verification and positive identification systems, unauthorized people can be granted access to facilities or resources as the result of incorrect matches. That occurs when a subsequent reading does not properly match the enrolled biometric relating to that individual, something that results in Denial of Access to services. * The Crossover Error Rate (CER): The Crossover Error Rate (CER) is defined as the error rate of the system when the FAR and FRR are equal.Usually expressed as a percentage, the CER can b e used to compare the performance of different biometric systems. * False enrol rate: This occurs when a person’s biometric is either unrecognizable, or when it is not of a sufficiently high standard for the machine to make a judgment, something that does not allow the user to enrol in the system in the first place. The fingerprints of people who work extensively at manual labour are often too worn to be captured. A high percentage of people are unable to enrol in retina recognition systems because of the precision such systems require.People who are mute cannot use voice systems, and people lacking fingers or hands from congenital disease, surgery, or injury cannot use fingerprint or hand geometry systems [10]. Applications of biometrics 2. 7ADVANTAGES OF BIOMETRIC SECURITY [14] 1. The first advantage of using this new technology is the uniqueness and it is also the main characteristic which allows biometrics technology to become more and more important in our lives. With un iqueness of biometrics technology, each individual's identification will be single most effective identification for that user.A chance of two users having the same identification in the biometrics security technology system is nearly zero. 2. Secondly, the highly secure way of identifying users makes this technology less prone for users to share access to highly sensitive data. For example, users can share their fingerprints, iris and so forth allowing other users access to secure information. Each trait used during identification is a single property of that user. In other words, it is extremely hard or impossible to make duplicate or share biometrics accessing data with other users.This makes it ever more secure allowing user information and data to be kept highly secure from unauthorized users. 3. This identification of users though biometrics cannot be lost, stolen or forgotten. This aspect of biometrics technology allows it to become more popular in its use. This method of ide ntifying and giving access to user makes user identification a lot easier. Finally, most biometrics security systems are easy to install and it requires small amount of funding for equipment (except modern biometrics technology such as: DNA/retinal/iris recognition). . 8 CHALLENGES AND ISSUES Nothing is 100% secure, not even biometrics. Nevertheless, biometrics does provide the means to present security credentials that are unique. Unlike other systems that may rely on passwords or tokens that can be vulnerable to loss or exploitation, no one is going enter your live biometric as a means of impersonation Just as a firewall does not constitute a network security solution but rather a component of a defensive strategy, biometrics could be viewed in the same manner.It is not enough to assume absolute verification with biometrics alone but rather as part of a well designed security implementation that considers strong two factor authentication. The second major threat is concerned with modification of the components of the authentication system. The capture device could be modified to output a different image to the one captured. Alternatively, it could be modified to create a denial-of-service (DoS) that will prevent legitimate users accessing the system (by smashing a camera, for example). The processes of emplate generation or template matching could be subverted to produce erroneous results; for example, a piece of malicious code could interfere with the template generation software to produce the attacker’s template rather than that of the legitimate user, or the matching process could be modified to produce an artificially high or low matching score. CHAPTER THREE 3. 1 CLOUD COMPUTING Cloud computing is a means of accessing computer facilities via the Internet, where the adjective â€Å"cloud† reflects the diagrammatic use of a cloud as a metaphor for the Internet.Most of us have been using cloud-computing facilities in one form or another for years through ordinary email and the World Wide Web. Recently, the term has come to reflect the use of software and the running of computer applications via the Internet where the computer infrastructure and software are not â€Å"on premises. † Cloud computing, as a form of service provisioning, has given rise to several related concepts, such as mesh computing, cloud platforms, and software plus service. Cloud Computing is a new computing model that distributes the computing missions on a resource pool that includes a large amount of computing resources.In a survey undertaken by the International Data Corporation (IDC) group between 2008 and 2009, the majority of results point to employing Cloud computing as a low-cost viable option to users [17] developers or research projects and even e-commerce entrepreneurs. Using Cloud computing can help in keeping one’s IT budget to a bare minimum. It is also ideally suited for development and testing scenarios. It is the easie st solution to test potential proof of concepts without investing too much capital.Using cloud computing service, users can store their critical data in servers and can access their data anywhere they can with the Internet and do not need to worry about system breakdown or disk faults, etc. Also, different users in one system can share their information and work, as well as play games together. Many important companies such as Amazon, Google, IBM, Microsoft, and Yahoo are the forerunners that provide cloud computing services. Recently more and more companies such as SalesForce, Facebook, YouTube, MySpace etc. also begin to provide all kinds of cloud computing services for Internet users . 2 TYPES OF CLOUDS [18] In providing a secure Cloud computing solution, a major decision is to decide on the type of cloud to be implemented. Currently there are three types of cloud deployment models offered, namely, a public, private and hybrid cloud. A. Public Cloud A public cloud is a model whic h allows users’ access to the cloud via interfaces using mainstream web browsers. It’s typically based on a pay-per-use model, similar to a prepaid electricity metering system which is flexible enough to cater for spikes in demand for cloud optimisation.This helps cloud clients to better match their IT expenditure at an operational level by decreasing its capital expenditure on IT infrastructure [19]. Public clouds are less secure than the other cloud models because it places an additional burden of ensuring all applications and data accessed on the public cloud are not subjected to malicious attacks. Therefore trust and privacy concerns are rife when dealing with Public clouds with the Cloud SLA at its core. B. Private Cloud A private cloud is set up within an organisation’s internal enterprise datacenter.It is easier to align with security, compliance, and regulatory requirements, and provides more enterprise control over deployment and use. In the private clo ud, scalable resources and virtual applications provided by the cloud vendor are pooled together and available for cloud users to share and use. It differs from the public cloud in that all the cloud resources and applications are managed by the organisation itself, similar to Intranet functionality. Utilisation on the private cloud can be much more secure than that of the public cloud because of its specified internal exposure.Only the organisation and designated stakeholders may have access to operate on a specific Private cloud [20]. C. Hybrid Cloud A hybrid cloud is a private cloud linked to one or more external cloud services, centrally managed, provisioned as a single unit, and circumscribed by a secure network [20]. It provides virtual IT solutions through a mix of both public and private clouds. Hybrid Clouds provide more secure control of the data and applications and allows various parties to access information over the Internet. It also has an open architecture that allow s interfaces with other management systems. . 3 CLOUD COMPUTING DELIVERY MODELS [18] The architecture of Cloud computing can be categorised according to the three types of delivery models, namely Infrastructure as a service (IaaS), Software as a service (SaaS) and Platform as a service (PaaS). A. Infrastructure as a Service (IaaS) Infrastructure as a Service is a single tenant cloud layer where the Cloud computing vendor’s dedicated resources are only shared with contracted clients at a pay-per-use fee. This greatly minimizes the need for huge initial investment in computing hardware such as servers, networking devices and processing power.They also allow varying degrees of financial and functional flexibility not found in internal data centers or with co-location services, because computing resources can be added or released much more quickly and cost-effectively than in an internal data center or with a colocation service [21]. B. Software as a Service (SaaS) Software as a Service also operates on the virtualised and pay-per-use costing model whereby software applications are leased out to contracted organisations by specialised SaaS vendors. This is traditionally accessed remotely using a web browser via the Internet.Software as a service applications are accessed using web browsers over the Internet therefore web browser security is vitally important. Information security officers will need to consider various methods of securing SaaS applications. Web Services (WS) security, Extendable Markup Language (XML) encryption, Secure Socket Layer (SSL) and available options which are used in enforcing data protection transmitted over the Internet. C. Platform as a Service (PaaS) Platform as a service cloud layer works like IaaS but it provides an additional level of â€Å"rented† functionality.Clients using PaaS services transfer even more costs from capital investment to operational expenses but must acknowledge the additional constraints and possi bly some degree of lock-in posed by the additional functionality layers [20] . The use of virtual machines act as a catalyst in the PaaS layer in Cloud computing. Virtual machines must be protected against malicious attacks such as cloud malware. Therefore maintaining the integrity of applications and well enforcing accurate authentication checks during the transfer of data across the entire networking channels is fundamental.Figure 3. 1 CLOUD COMPUTING MAP [18] 3. 4 CLOUD SECURITY Cloud computing have many advantages in cost reduction, resource sharing and time saving for new service deployment. While in a cloud computing system, most data and software that users use reside on the Internet, which bring some new challenges for the system, especially security and privacy. Since each application may use resource from multiple servers. The servers are potentially based at multiple locations and the services provided by the cloud may use different infrastructures across organizations.Al l these characteristics of cloud computing make it complicated to provide security in cloud computing. To ensure adequate security in cloud computing, various security issues, such as authentication, data confidentiality and integrity, and non-repudiation, all need to be taken into account. The biggest challenge in implementing successful Cloud computing technologies is managing the security. As with any new technology enhancements, criticisms are driven by fear of unknown variables and changes to current control procedures. How can cloud stakeholders ensure and promote the security of Cloud computing?In the Cloud Computing Services Survey conducted during August 08/09 by IDC IT group [17], users were asked to rate their issues and challenges experienced with Cloud computing. The results illustrate that security is the biggest concern. Security is the main issue users are concerned with when considering Cloud computing solutions. CHAPTER FOUR 4. 1 APPLICATION OF BIOMETRICS IN CLOUD SECURITY One of the Security risks in cloud computing according to Garfunkel [23] is hacked passwords or data intrusion. If someone hacks a password they get control over the resources.They can manipulate the information or disable the services. Furthermore, there is a possibility for the user’s email (Amazon user name) to be hacked (see [24] for a discussion of the potential risks of email), and since Amazon allows a lost password to be reset by email, the hacker may still be able to log in to the account after receiving the new reset password [25]. As an excellent storage scheme for tenants’ big data, cloud computing has been a hot issue for a lot of consumers, generally, tenants’ different data should be processed by different security modes.Biometric authentication has the advantage of exclusive for tenant in data access. When any registered cloud tenant , want to access the data stored in cloud, first, he must pass the cloud system check such as cloud_sys_c hecker A Hybrid biometric method can be developed by fusing finger prints and voice biometric methods. The fused value can be used as signal sign on for multiple resources provided by cloud. This encrypted data is used for authentication 4. 2BIOMETRIC AUTHENTICATION SYSTEM AS A CLOUD SERVICE:The authentication service provider maintains the biometric data base . The data has to be stored in encrypted format using cryptography on biometric for the security reasons 4. 2. 1ARCHITECTURE BIOMETRICS AUTHENTICATION SYSTEM A secure data access scheme based on identity-based Encryption and biometric authentication for cloud communication Cloud Services1 CS1 Cloud Services1 CS3 Cloud Services1 CS2 Biometric Authentication Service Org1 User1 User2 †¦ Org2 User1 User2 Fig4. 1: Biometric Authenticating System in cloud [30].The user initially enrols with the biometric system which is provided by a cloud, once the identity is registered his/her biometric authentication details are stored in c loud service provider database. The authorization details are also entered at the registration time which is also encrypted. Whenever the user wants to use any cloud service user first uses the biometric authentication service rather than a traditional password mechanism. Once authenticated, the user is redirected to the actual cloud service for which he is authorized to use. 4. 3 A PROPOSED METHOD [29] Step1: Setup cloud side parameters . Initialization On the cloud service side, given a security parameter 2. Key generation When tenants are registered in cloud computing providers, each tenant will obtain a unique identity to identify him or her. The phase generates private key corresponding to given registered ID of every tenant in cloud computing. Step2: Generate tenant’s biometric template Cloud computing is a pervasive service environment for tenants, different tenants have different security requirement. To these tenants who have special security concern on data can gene rate their biometric template and be stored in cloud database.Biometric authentication must be needed when someone wants to access the data. Step3: Encrypt cloud data Input: cloud data (which is created by cloud tenants and stored in the database of cloud platform), a private key (the cloud service providers), and an ID (the cloud tenant who want to access the data); output: encrypted cloud data. Step4: Biometric authentication As an excellent storage scheme for tenants’ big data, cloud computing has been a hot issue for a lot of consumers, generally, tenants’ different data should be processed by different security modes.Biometric authentication has the advantage of exclusive for tenant in data access. Step4: Biometric authentication As an excellent storage scheme for tenants’ big data, cloud computing has been a hot issue for a lot of consumers, generally, tenants’ different data should be processed by different security modes. Biometric authentication has the advantage of exclusive for tenant in data access. When any registered cloud tenant say, p, want to access the data stored in cloud, first, he must pass the cloud system check such as cloud_sys_checker.Then, cloud tenants use registered identity ID to create their biometric template and all of the created templates are stored in cloud_sys_database. In cloud data access, cloud tenant p must pass the biometric authentication performed by biometric matcher in cloud computing. Step5: Decrypt cloud data Input: encrypted cloud data ciphertext (which is generated in Step3), an ID (the cloud service provider’s), a private key (the cloud tenant who want to access the data), and output: the corresponding plaintext i. e. cloud data. CHAPTER FIVE 5. 1 SUMMARYIn summary, as Biometrics allow for increased security, convenience we can say that fused biometric authentication system will be novel solution for authenticating users on cloud computing ,which can be provided as service on cloud . By following guiding principles discussed in this paper, a great deal of insecurities may be easily expelled, saving business owners’ valuable time and investment. Cloud computing has the potential to become a frontrunner in promoting a secure, virtual and economically viable IT solution. Future work and progress lies in standardising Cloud computing security protocols 5. CONCLUSION . Authentication is necessary in Cloud Computing. In order to seek a secure data access method for cloud tenants, a proposed method presented a secure data access mechanism based on identity-based encryption and biometric authentication in this paper, the mechanism set double protection for confidential data of cloud tenants, encryption will make the tenants data secure against the peekers and biometric authentication will eliminate the maloperations over tenants data by root administrator in cloud service. The security of data is maintained even though the same application is shared by mu ltitenant.To ensure the correctness of users’ data in cloud data storage, an effective and flexible biometric is proposed. i believe that data storage security in Cloud Computing, an area full of challenges and of paramount importance, is still in its infancy now, and many research problems are yet to be identified. This proposed method can be implemented with more security by using strong biometric m easures like eye. REFERENCES [1] http://en. wikipedia. org/wiki/Biometrics [2] J. L. Wayman, â€Å"Fundamentals of Biometric Authentication Xhtp:/ww. engr. sisu. edu/biometrics/nbtcw. p 4] http://www. fi. muni. cz/reports/files/older/FIMU-RS-2000-08. pdf [6] http://www. indexbiometrics. com/physiological_or_behavioral. htm [7] http://ntrg. cs. tcd. ie [8] Cernet. â€Å"CHARACTERISTICS OF BIOMETRIC SYSTEMS†. [online] available: http://www. ccert. edu. cn/education/cissp/hism/039-041. html. February 2013 [9] V. Vijaya Kumari and N. Suriyanarayanan. â€Å"Performance Measu re of Local Operators in Fingerprint Detection. † Academic Open Internet Journal, vol. 23, pp. 1-7, (2008). [10] www. gao. gov/cgi-bin/getrpt? GAO-03-1137T. February 2013 [11] Jain, A. K. ; Ross, A. Pankanti, S. , â€Å"Biometrics: a tool for information security† Volume: 1 Issue: 2, Issue Date: June 2006, page(s): 125 – 143 [12] Michael E. Schuckers, â€Å"Some Statistical Aspects of Biometric Identification Device Performance†, 2001 [13] Sandra Maestre, Sean Nichols â€Å"DNA Biometrics†, 2009 [14] Massimo Tistarelli and Marks Nixon, â€Å"Advances In Biometrics†, Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2009, ISBN 03029743 [15]Erdogmus, H. : Cloud Computing: Does Nirvana Hide behind the Nebula? IEEE Software 26(2), 4–6 (2009) [16] Leavitt, N. : Is Cloud Computing Really Ready for Prime Time?Computer 42(1), 15–20(2009) [17] Gens F, 2009,’ New IDC IT Cloud Services Survey: Top Benefits and Challenges’,IDC eXchange, viewe d 18 February 2010, Accessed online @ . February 2013 [18]Ramgovind S, Eloff MM, Smith E,† The Management of Security in Cloud Computing† [Online] Available: http://uir. unisa. ac. za/bitstream/handle/10500/3883/ramgovind. pdf;jsessionid=75882F66B5AF28B3D640A3C5F9CFD837? sequence=1 February 2013 [19] A Platform Computing Whitepaper, ‘Enterprise Cloud Computing: Transforming IT’, Platform Computing, pp6, viewed 13March 2010. 20]Global Netoptex Incorporated, 2009, â€Å"Demystifying the cloud. Important opportunities, crucial choices† , [online] pp 4-14 Available: http://www. gni. com, February 2013 [21] Brodkin J, 2008, ‘Gartner: Seven cloud-computing security risks’, Infoworld, Accessed [email  protected] http://www. infoworld. com/d/security-central/gartner-seven-cloudcomputing-Security-risks-853? page=0,1 February 2013 [22] J. Ilonen, Keystroke dynamics, Lappeenranta University of Technology, Finland, http://www. it. lut . fi/kurssit/ 03-04/010970000/seminars/Ilonen. pdf (2003) [23] S. L.Garfinkel, â€Å"An evaluation of amazon’s grid computing services: EC2, S3, and SQS†, Technical Report TR-08-07, Computer ScienceGroup, Harvard University, Citeseer, 2007 [24] S. L. Garfinkel, â€Å"Email-based identification and authentication: An alternative to PKI? â€Å", IEEE Security and Privacy, 1(6), 2003 [25] Cloud Computing Security: From Single to Multi-Clouds [Online] Available: http://ieeexplore. ieee. org/stamp/stamp. jsp? tp=&arnumber=614956 February 2013 [26] Rahultech â€Å"IT trends-latest/recent trends in information technology† 2010[online] available: